It’s a tension that has played out in other states including Karnataka, where language activists fear their local language – Kannada – is being marginalised as many migrants believe they can get by using Hindi or English.
In Maharashtra, the government says drivers are not expected to read or write Marathi, or to speak it fluently. Under changes to the state’s motor vehicle rules, they are required to have a “working knowledge” of the language.
To help them learn, the government has organised classes focused on Marathi words and phrases drivers might need at work – asking passengers where they want to go, discussing fares or giving directions.
Around 166,000 drivers have completed the training and passed an oral test, according to the state’s transport department.
Munawar Sheikh, a 58-year-old tuk-tuk driver, was among those who signed up.
Over four days at a training centre in Thane, near Mumbai, he and other drivers learnt 16 commonly used questions and phrases, including “Where do you want to go?”, “don’t worry” and “the fare will be according to the meter”.
At the end, they took an oral test, with those who passed receiving a certificate they could show transport officials during inspections.
Sheikh says the course taught him enough Marathi to manage basic conversations with passengers.
But for some drivers, finding the time to learn is part of the problem.
Ajay Singh, a taxi driver in Mumbai, says he wants to learn Marathi but has struggled to fit classes around his working day.
“From the time we wake up until late at night, we have to drive. Otherwise, there is no food on the table,” he says. “Taking a few hours out of the day for a class is financially difficult for me.”
Singh says he earns between 1,500 and 2,000 rupees ($17-$23; £13-£17) a day and worries that losing even a few days’ income could leave him struggling to pay rent and his children’s school fees.
Instead, he is trying to learn while he works – listening to Marathi radio stations while driving and practising with Marathi-speaking passengers.
Lakhan Pandey, also a driver, says the extra year has made a significant difference.
He says he never objected to learning Marathi – he just wanted enough time to do it.
“We live here, we work here. Of course we should learn Marathi,” he says. “Just give us the time to learn it without putting our livelihoods at risk.”
